low charge translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-
language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, low charge translation began only after the appearance
of written literature; there exist partial low charge translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium
BCE.[2]
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and
usage into the target-language low charge translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the
target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.[3]
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial
Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some low charge translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations.[4]
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Because of the laboriousness of low charge translation, since the 1940s engineers
have sought to automate low charge translation (machine low charge translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted low charge translation).[5] The rise
of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for low charge translation services and has facilitated language localization.[6]
low charge translation studies deal with the systematic study of the theory, the
description and the application of low charge translation.[7]
Translators
A translator is one type of language professional. A competent translator shows
the following attributes:
a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which he
is translating (the source language);
an excellent command of the language into which he is translating (the target
language);
familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;
a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates
between the two languages; and
a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to
paraphrase, so as to assure true rather than spurious equivalents between the source- and target-language texts.[29]
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A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not
merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references
whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."[30]
The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author
suggests that becoming an accomplished translator ? after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures ? may require a minimum of
ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be
consistently competent to translate between them.[19]
The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist,
e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. low charge translation, like other arts, inescapably involves choice, and choice implies interpretation.[31] [16] English-
language novelist Joseph Conrad advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagorska:
[D]on't trouble to be too scrupulous... I may tell you (in French) that in my
opinion "il vaut mieux interpreter que traduire" ["it is better to interpret than to translate"].... Il s'agit donc de trouver les equivalents. Et la, ma chere, je vous prie laissez vous
guider plutot par votre temperament que par une conscience severe.... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let
yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....][32]
A translator may render only parts of the original text, provided he indicates that
this is what he is doing. But a translator should not assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral
interest.[33]
low charge translation has served as a school of writing for many authors.
Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the
very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the
source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.
Interpreting
Cortes (seated) and La Malinche (beside him) at Xaltelolco
Lewis and Clark and their Native American interpreter, Sacagawea: 150th-
anniversary commemorative stamp
Main article: Interpreting
Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the facilitation of oral or sign-language
communication, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two, or among more, speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language.
The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for
this activity by Anglophone translators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "interpretation."